Immune Competency in a Coronavirus Environment
Asian Journal of Immunology,
Page 33-43
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 [COVID-19] belongs to the class of coronaviruses - one of a group of RNA[ribonucleic acid] viruses that infect animals and humans, primarily the upper respiratory and gastrointestinal tract and these are zoonotic, meaning that they can be transmitted between animals and people. The elderly and immunocompromised persons were considered more vulnerable to severe infections of such respiratory tract diseases but the spread of this recent pandemic raises fear that immunodeficiency is not quite the main factor. Vaccines and treatment options are currently being investigated and deployed but there is no definitive evidence that certain medications are effective with regard to preventing illness or transmission of the COVID-19. As is wont in a pandemic of this nature, claims are being made that nutritional regime which is of value in boosting the immune system will either prevent such infections as COVID-19 or enhance recovery. There are also claims that some people are more genetically predisposed to the infection than others. This review brings to the fore information that will clear speculations and make sense of confusing and often conflicting scientific data about the role of immune competence in the prevention, transmission of and recovery from COVID-19 and other similar infections. This involved a Google search for keywords like immunecompetence, influenza, coronaviruses, COVID-19, Nutrient value, Vitamin C and Vitamin D, in all available publications in the public domain without regard to the age of publication. This broad search spectrum is intended to capture all the historical effort to understand the role of immune function in the treatment and recovery to the influenza virus which seems to be the primogenitor of COVID-19.
Keywords:
- Immune competence
- COVID-19
- nutrient value
- vitamin D
How to Cite
Nwokike, M. O., Ogbonna, A. O., Anusiem, C. A., Ogbuagu, E. C., & Ghasi, S. I. (2021). Immune Competency in a Coronavirus Environment. Asian Journal of Immunology, 5(1), 33-43. Retrieved from https://journalaji.com/index.php/AJI/article/view/30148
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Chan JF, To KK, Tse H, Jin DY, Yuen KY. Interspecies transmission and emergence of novel viruses: Lessons from bats and birds. Trends Microbiol. 2013;10:544-55.
Bradburne AF, Bynoe ML, Tyrrell DA. Effects of a new human respiratory virus in volunteers, British Medical Journal. 1967;3: 767–769.
Fuentes S, Coyle EM, Beeler J, Golding H, Khurana S. Antigenic fingerprinting following primary RSV infection in young children identifies novel antigenic sites and reveals unlinked evolution of human antibody repertoires to fusion and attachment glycoproteins. PLOS Pathogens. 2016;12.
Dong Y, Mo X, Hu Y, et al. Epidemiological Characteristics of 2143 Pediatric Patients with 2019 Coronavirus Disease in China. Pediatrics; 2020.
Liu W, Zhang Q, Chen J, et al. Detection of COVID-19 in children in early january 2020 in Wuhan, China. The New England Journal of Medicine; 2020.
Pene F, Merlat A, Vabret A, et al. Coronavirus 229E-related pneumonia in immunocompromised patients, Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2003;37:929–932.
Folz RJ, Elkordy MA. Coronavirus pneumonia following autologous bone marrow transplantation for breast cancer, Chest. 115:901–905.
Foula Vassilara, Aikaterini Spyridaki, George Pothitos, Athanassia Deliveliotou, Antonios Papadopoulos. A rare case of human coronavirus 229E Associated with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in a Healthy Adult. Case Reports in Infectious Diseases; 2018. Article ID 6796839.
Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, et al. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: A study of a family cluster. Lancet. 2020;395:514-523
Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, et al. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. The New England Journal of Medicine; 2020.
Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A single-centered, retrospective, observational study. The Lancet Respiratory Medicine; 2020.
Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult in patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective cohort study, Lancet; 2020.
Li Q, et al. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia. N Engl J Med; 2020.
Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A descriptive study. Lancet. 2020;395:507-513.
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395:497-506.
Qian G, Yang N, Ma AHY, et al. A COVID-19 Transmission within a family cluster by presymptomatic infectors in China. Clinical infectious diseases: An official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America; 2020.
Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, et al. Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in germany. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2020;382:970-971.
Livingston E, Bucher K. Coronavirus Disease 2019 [COVID-19] in Italy. Jama; 2020.
WHO-Novel Coronavirus – China. Disease outbreak news: Update; 2020.
Parkin J, Cohen B. An overview of the immune system. Lancet. 2001;357:1777-89.
Flori et al. The Autoimmune Diseases [Sixth Edition]; 2020.
Marcos A, Nova E, Montero A. Changes in the immune system are conditioned by nutrition. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2003;57:S66–S69.
Callow KA, Parry HF, Sergeant M, Tyrrell DA. The time course of the immune response to experimental coronavirus infection of man. Epidemiol Infect. 1990; 105:435–446.
Vilcinskas A. Evolutionary plasticity of insect immunity. J Insect Physiol. 2012;59: 123–129.
Abbas AK, Lichtman AH, Pillai S. Cellular and molecular immunology, 6ª ed, Editor A. Saunders; 2007.
Gray D, Gray M, Barr T. Innate responses of B cells. Eur J Immunol. 2007;37:3304-10.
Jablonski W. A Contribution to the Heredity of Refraction in Human Eyes; 1922.
Jacobson RM, Ovsyannikova IG, Targonski PV, Poland GA. Studies of twins in vaccinology. Vaccine. 2007;25:3160-3164.
De Craen AJM, Posthuma D, Remarque EJ, van den Biggelaar AHJ, Westendorp RGJ, Boomsma DI. Heritability estimates of innate immunity: An extended twin study. Genes Immun. 2005;6:167-170.
Clementi M, Forabosco P, Amadori A, Zamarchi R, De Silvestro G, Di Gianantonio E, et al. CD4 and CD8 T lymphocyte inheritance. Evidence for Major Autosomal Recessive Genes. Hum Genet. 1999;105:337-342.
Evans DM, Zhu G, Duffy DL, Frazer IH, Montgomery GW, Martin NG. A major quantitative trait Locus for CD4-CD8 Ratio is Located on Chromosome. 2004;11.
Davis Mark, Petter Brodin, Vladimir Jojic, Tianxiang Gao, Atul J. Butte, Holden T. Maecker. Variation in the Human Immune System Is Largely Driven by Non-Heritable Influences. Cell. 2015;160:37-47.
Linlin B, et al. Reinfection could not occur in SARS-CoV-2 Infected Rhesus Macaques medRxiv; 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.13.990226
Li-Ping Wu, et al. Duration of antibody responses after severe acute respiratory syndrome. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;10: 1562–1564.
Hooper LV, Littman DR, Macpherson AJ. Interactions between the microbiota and the immune system. Science. 2012;336: 1268-1273.
Sasaki S, He XS, Holmes TH, Dekker CL, Kemble GW, Arvin AM, Greenberg HB. Influence of prior influenza vaccination on antibody and B-cell responses. PLoS ONE. 2008;3:e2975.
Alcaïs A, Abel L, Casanova JL. Human genetics of infectious diseases: Between proof of principle and paradigm. J Clin Invest. 2009;119:2506-2514.
Chan JF, Kok KH, Zhu Z, Chu H, To KK, Yuan S, Yuen KY. Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9:221-236.
Hoehl S, Berger A, Kortenbusch M, et al. Evidence of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Returning Travelers from Wuhan, China. The New England Journal of Medicine; 2020.
Pan X, Chen D, Xia Y, et al. Asymptomatic cases in a family cluster with SARS-CoV-2 infection. The Lancet Infectious Diseases; 2020.
Bai Y, Yao L, Wei T, et al. Presumed asymptomatic carrier transmission of COVID-19. Jama; 2020.
Hu Z, Song C, Xu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 24 asymptomatic infections with COVID-19 screened among close contacts in Nanjing, China. Science China Life sciences; 2020.
Wang Y, Liu Y, Liu L, Wang X, Luo N, Ling L. Clinical outcome of 55 asymptomatic cases at the time of hospital admission infected with SARS-Coronavirus-2 in Shenzhen, China. The Journal of Infectious Diseases; 2020.
Amanat Fatima, et al. A serological assay to detect SARS-CoV-2 seroconversion in humans. BMJ Yale; 2020.
Grimble RF. Effect of antioxidative vitamins on immune function with clinical applications. Int J Vit Nutr Res. 1997;67: 312–320.
Chandra RK. Nutrition and the immune system from birth to old age. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2002;56:S73–S76.
De Pablo MA, Alvarez de Cienfuegos G. Modulatory effects of dietary lipids on immune system functions. Immunol Cell Biol. 2000;78:31–39.
Calder PC, Kew S. The immune system: A target for functional foods? Br J Nutr. 2002;88:S165–S177.
Pauling L, Vitamin C. The Common Cold and the Flu, Berkley Books; 1981. ISBN: 0-425-04853-5.
Ted Goertzel, Ben Goertzel. Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics, Basic Books; 1995. ISBN 0-465-00672-8.
Hemilä Harri, Chalker Elizabeth, Treacy Barbara, Douglas Bob. Vitamin c for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews; 2009.
Chiscano-Camón L, Ruiz-Rodriguez JC, Ruiz-Sanmartin A, Roca O, Ferrer R. Vitamin C levels in patients with SARS-CoV-2-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit. Care. 2020;24: 522. DOI: 10.1186/s13054-020-03249-y
Carr AC. Vitamin C in pneumonia and sepsis. In: Chen Q, Vissers M, editors. Vitamin C: New biochemical and functional insights. Oxidative Stress and Disease. CRC Press/Taylor and Francis; Boca Raton, FL, USA. 2020;115–135.
Zhang J, Rao X, Li Y, Zhu Y, Liu F, Guo G, et al. High-dose vitamin C infusion for the treatment of Critically ill COVID-19. Res. Sq; 2020 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-52778/v1
Artaza JN, Mehrotra R, Norris KC. Vitamin D and the cardiovascular system. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009; 4:1515–22.
Gandini S, Boniol M, Haukka J, Byrnes G, Cox B, Sneyd MJ, et al. Meta analysis of observational studies of serum 25 hydroxyvitamin D levels and colorectal, breast and prostate cancer and colorectal adenoma. Int J Cancer. 2011;128:1414–24.
Mathieu C, Gysemans C, Giulietti A, Bouillon R. Vitamin D and diabetes. Diabetologia. 2005;48:1247–57.
Janna [Ioanna] Nissen. Can vitamin D levels be determined by genes?. Science Daily. Science Daily; 2015. Available:
Louise Saul, et al. Mellanby. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Restrains CD4 T Cell priming ability of CD11c Dendritic Cells by Upregulating Expression of CD31. Frontiers in Immunology. 2019;10. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00600.
Ginde AA, Mansbach JM, Camargo CA. Jr. Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and upper respiratory tract infection in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Intern Med. 23;169:384-90.
Hollis BW. Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels indicative of vitamin D sufficiency. Implications for establishing a new effective dietary intake recommendation for vitamin D. The Journal of Nutrition. 2005; 135:317–322. Available:https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/135.2.317
Mazahery H, von Hurst PR. Factors affecting 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration in response to Vitamin D Supplementation. Nutrients, 2015;7:5111–5142.
Hélène Quach, Maxime Rotival, Julien Pothlichet, Yong-Hwee, Eddie Loh, et al. Genetic adaptation and neandertal admixture shaped the immune system of human populations. Cell; 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.09.024
Powe CE, Evans MK, Wenger J, Zonderman AB, Berg AH, Nalls M, et al. Vitamin D-binding protein and vitamin D status of black Americans and white Americans. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1991–2000.
Aloia JF. African Americans, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and osteoporosis: A paradox. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88:545S–550S.
Aloia JF, Patel M, Dimaano R, Li-Ng M, Talwar SA, Mikhail M, et al. Vitamin D intake to attain a desired serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87:1952–1958.
Batai K, Murphy AB, Shah E, Ruden M, Newsome J, Agate S, et al. Common vitamin D pathway gene variants reveal contrasting effects on serum vitamin D levels in African Americans and European Americans. Hum Genet. 2014;133:1395–1405.
Carter S. The medicalisation of sunlight in the early twentieth century. J Hist Sociol. 2012;25:83–105.
Rollier A. Heliotherapy. London: Hodder and Stoughton; 1923.
Grad R. Cod and the consumptive: A brief history of cod-liver oil in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis, Pharmacy in History. 2004; 46:106–120.
Williams C. On the use and administration of cod-liver oil in pulmonary consumption. London Journal of Medicine. 1849;1:1–18.
Simonelli C. The role of vitamin D deficiency in osteoporosis and fractures. Minn Med. 2005;88:34–6. Wharton B, Bishop N. Rickets. Lancet. 2003;362:1389–400.
Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency, The New England Journal of Medicine. 2007;357: 266–281.
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