Local Immunity Concept in the Context of the Novel Corona Viral Infection: A Consideration
Asian Journal of Immunology,
Page 16-25
Abstract
The pandemic of novel corona virus disease (covid 19), is presently sweeping the world over. The causative virus is named, SARS-CoV-2. The rapidity with which the pandemic is advancing is catastrophic. That there is no known treatment for this killer disease is throwing public at large into a state of fear psychosis. The urgent need for preventive vaccine is felt now, more than ever before Though promising research is going on, the goal to achieve a breakthrough vaccine is still a long way to go. Since SARS-CoV-2 is an infection restricted to respiratory system of the affected, vaccines aimed at inducing local (mucosal) immunity may offer better chance of preventing the acquisition and spread of the disease to others, than induction of systemic immunity. With this background theme, this article briefly reviewed the epidemiology, the vaccine trials of the Covid 19 as well as the immune responses to viral infection in general and with a special focus on the concept of Local immunity advanced by Prof Besredka (1924). The historical perspective of the local immunity concept is recapitulated and the diseases, both viral and bacterial, to which vaccines are developed in the past basing on this concept are reviewed. A case is made out for applying this concept for the prevention of covid 19. It is suggested that an approach to boost local immunity, than systemic immunity, might be a better strategy of prevention of covid 19.
Keywords:
- Covid 19
- local immunity
- viral immunity
- sars-cov-2(severe acute respiratory syndrome- corona virus 2)
- mers-cov(middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus).
How to Cite
Prasad, A. S. V. (2020). Local Immunity Concept in the Context of the Novel Corona Viral Infection: A Consideration. Asian Journal of Immunology, 3(2), 16-25. Retrieved from https://journalaji.com/index.php/AJI/article/view/30109
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Welliver RC, et al. Importance of local immunity in enteric infection. Review Article. J Am Vet. MedAssoc; 1978.
Potter CW, Oxford JS, Shore SL, McLaren C, Stuart-Harris CH. Immunity to influenza in ferrets. I. Response to live and killed virus. Br. J. Exp. Pathol. 1972;53:153-167.
Henry Barber W, Parker A, Small JR. Local and systemic immunity to influenza infections in ferret. Infection and Immunity. 1978;221-2283.
Aford RH, Rossen RD, Butler WT, Kasel JA. Neutralizing and hemagglutination inhibiting activity of nasal secretions following experimental human infection with A2 influenza virus. J. Immunol. 1967;98:724-731.
Rossen RD, Douglas RG, Cate TR, Couch RB, Butler WT. The sedimentation behaviour of rhino virus neutralizing activity in nasal secretions and serum following the rhinovirus common cold. J. Immunol. 1966;97:532-538.
Smith CB, Purcell RH, Bellanti JA, Chanock RM. Protective antibody to para influenza type 1 virus. N. Engl. J. Med. 1966;275:1145-1152.
Liem KS, Jacobs J, Marcus EA, Van Strik R. The protective effect of intranasal immu; 1973.
Waldman RH, Coggins WJ. Influenza immunization: Field trial on a university campus. J. Infect. Dis. 1972;126:242-248.
Waldman RH, Mann JJ, Small PA, Jr. Immunization against influenza: prevention ofillness in man by aerosolized inactivated vaccine. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1969;207:520-524.
Barber WH, Small PA, Jr. Construction of an improved tracheal pouch in the ferret. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1976;115:165-169.
Edmondson WP, Jr. Rothenberg R, White PW, Gwaltney JM, Jr. A comparison of sub-cutaneous, nasal and combined influenza vaccination; 1971.
Downie JC, Stuart-Harris CH. Theproduction of neutralizing activity in serum and nasalsecretion following immunization with influenza B. vi-rus. J. Hyg. (Cambridge). 1970;68: 233-244.
Small PA Jr., Waldman RH, Bruno JC, G. Gifford E. Influenza infection in ferrets: Role of serum antibody in protection and recovery. Infect. Im-mun. 1976;13:417-424.
Stuart-Harris C. Influenza-the problems and the, future. Med. J. Small PA, Jr. Waldman RH, Bruno JC, Gifford GE. Influenza infection in ferrets: role of serum antibody in protection and recovery. Infect. Im-mun. 1973;13:417-424.
Morris JA, Kosel JA, Saclam M, Knight V, Loda FA. Immunity to influenza as related to antibody levels. N. Engl. J. Med. 1966;274:527-535.
Kaji J, Oseasohn R, Jordan WS, Dingle JH. Isolation of Asian virus from eztrapulmonary tis-sues in fatal human influenza. Proc. Soc. Ezp. Biol. Med. 1959;100:272-275.
Kilbourne ED, Butler WT, Rossen RD. vibrio ref.
Bloom PD, et al. Mucosal immune responses to intestinal bacterial pathogens. Semin Gastrointest Dis; 1996.
Boullier S, et al. Secretory IgA-mediated neutralization of Shigella flexneri prevents intestinal tissue destruction by down-regulating inflammatory circuits. J Immunol; 2009.
Lisa M. Hodge, Jerry W. Simecka Role of upper and lower respiratory tract immunity in resistance to mycoplasma respiratory disease. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2002;186 (2)290–294.
Robert Herich. Is the role of IgA in local immunity completely known?, Food and Agricultural Immunology. 2017;28(2):223-237.
DOI: 10.1080/09540105.2016.1258547
Belyakov IM, Hel Z, Kelsall B, Kuznetsov VA, Ahlers JD, Nacsa J, Watkins DI, Allen TM, Sette A, Altman J, et al. Mucosal AIDS vaccine reduces disease and viral load in gut reservoir and blood after mucosal infection of macaques. Nat. Med. 2001;7:1320–1326.
Ichinohe T, Lee HK, Ogura Y, Flavell R, Iwasaki A. Inflammasome recognition of influenza virus is essential for adaptive immune responses. J. Exp. Med. 2009;206:79–87.
Kantele A, Ha¨kkinen M, Moldoveanu Z, Lu A, Savilahti E, Alvarez RD, Michalek S, Mestecky J. Differences in immune responses induced by oral and rectal immunizations with Salmonella typhi Ty21a: Evidence for compartmental-ization within the common mucosal immune system in humans. Infect. Immun. 1998;66:5630–5635.
Bienenstock J, Befus AD, McDermott M, Mirski S, Rosenthal K, Tagliabue A. The mucosal immunological network: Compartmentalization of lymphocytes, natural killer cells and mast cells. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1983;409:164–170.
Wang J, Thorson L, Stokes RW, Santosuosso M, Huygen K, Zganiacz A, Hitt M, Xing Z. Single mucosal, but not parenteral, immunization with recombinant adenoviral-based vaccine provides potent protection from pulmonary tuberculosis. J. Immunol. 2004;173:6357–6365.
Neutra MR, Kozlowski PA. M30. Neutra MR, Kozlowski PA. Mucosal vaccines: the promise and thechallenge. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2006;6:148–158.
Gallichan WS, Rosenthal KL. Long-lived cytotoxic T lymphocytememory in mucosal tissues after mucosal but not systemic immunization. J. Exp. Med. 1996;184:1879 –1890.
Revaz V, Benyacoub J, Kast WM, Schiller JT, De Grandi P, Nardelli-Haefliger D. Mucosal vaccination with a recombinant Salmonella ty-phimurium expressing human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) L1 virus-like particles (VLPs) or HPV16 VLPs purified from insect cells inhibits the growth of HPV16-expressing tumor cells in mice. Virology. 2001;279: 354–360.
Kozlowski PA, Cu-Uvin S, Neutra MR, T. Flanigan P. Comparisonof the oral, rectal and vaginal immunization routes for induction of antibodies inrectal and genital tract secretions of women. Infect. Immun. 1997;65:1387–1394.
Majid Laassri, Kathleen Lottenbach, Robert Belshe, Mark Wolff, Margaret Rennels, Stanley Plotkin, Konstantin Chumakov. Effect of different vaccination schedules on excretion of oral poliovirus vaccine strains. The journal of Infectious Diseases. 2005;192(12):2092–2098.
Health Organ. E-pub; 2020.
Yan Bai, Lingsheng Yao, Tao Wei, et al. Presumed asymptomatic carrier transmission of COVID-19. JAMA; 2020.
Camilla Rothe, Mirjam Schunk, Peter Sothmann, et al. Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany, NEJM; 2019.
DOI: 10.1056/NEJMc2001468
Study claiming new coronavirus can be transmitted by people without symptoms was flawed. Local Immunity in Infectious Diseases. Nature. 2020;113:242–243.
Available:sciencemag.org/news/2020
Aford RH, Rossen RD, Butler WT, Kasel JA. Neutralizing and hemagglutination i nhibiting activity of nasal secretions following experimental human infection with A2 influenza virus. J. Mmunol. 1967;98:724-731.
Welliver RC, et al. Importance of local immunity in enteric infection. Review Article. J Am Vet. MedAssoc; 1978.
Potter CW, Oxford JS, Shore SL, McLaren C, Stuart-Harris CH. Immunity to influenza in ferrets. I. Response to live and killed virus. Br. J. Exp. Pathol. 1972;53:153-167.
Henry Barber W, Parker A, Small JR. Local and systemic immunity to influenza infections in ferret. Infection and Immunity. 1978;221-2283.
Aford RH, Rossen RD, Butler WT, Kasel JA. Neutralizing and hemagglutination inhibiting activity of nasal secretions following experimental human infection with A2 influenza virus. J. Immunol. 1967;98:724-731.
Rossen RD, Douglas RG, Cate TR, Couch RB, Butler WT. The sedimentation behaviour of rhino virus neutralizing activity in nasal secretions and serum following the rhinovirus common cold. J. Immunol. 1966;97:532-538.
Smith CB, Purcell RH, Bellanti JA, Chanock RM. Protective antibody to para influenza type 1 virus. N. Engl. J. Med. 1966;275:1145-1152.
Liem KS, Jacobs J, Marcus EA, Van Strik R. The protective effect of intranasal immu; 1973.
Waldman RH, Coggins WJ. Influenza immunization: Field trial on a university campus. J. Infect. Dis. 1972;126:242-248.
Waldman RH, Mann JJ, Small PA, Jr. Immunization against influenza: prevention ofillness in man by aerosolized inactivated vaccine. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1969;207:520-524.
Barber WH, Small PA, Jr. Construction of an improved tracheal pouch in the ferret. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1976;115:165-169.
Edmondson WP, Jr. Rothenberg R, White PW, Gwaltney JM, Jr. A comparison of sub-cutaneous, nasal and combined influenza vaccination; 1971.
Downie JC, Stuart-Harris CH. Theproduction of neutralizing activity in serum and nasalsecretion following immunization with influenza B. vi-rus. J. Hyg. (Cambridge). 1970;68: 233-244.
Small PA Jr., Waldman RH, Bruno JC, G. Gifford E. Influenza infection in ferrets: Role of serum antibody in protection and recovery. Infect. Im-mun. 1976;13:417-424.
Stuart-Harris C. Influenza-the problems and the, future. Med. J. Small PA, Jr. Waldman RH, Bruno JC, Gifford GE. Influenza infection in ferrets: role of serum antibody in protection and recovery. Infect. Im-mun. 1973;13:417-424.
Morris JA, Kosel JA, Saclam M, Knight V, Loda FA. Immunity to influenza as related to antibody levels. N. Engl. J. Med. 1966;274:527-535.
Kaji J, Oseasohn R, Jordan WS, Dingle JH. Isolation of Asian virus from eztrapulmonary tis-sues in fatal human influenza. Proc. Soc. Ezp. Biol. Med. 1959;100:272-275.
Kilbourne ED, Butler WT, Rossen RD. vibrio ref.
Bloom PD, et al. Mucosal immune responses to intestinal bacterial pathogens. Semin Gastrointest Dis; 1996.
Boullier S, et al. Secretory IgA-mediated neutralization of Shigella flexneri prevents intestinal tissue destruction by down-regulating inflammatory circuits. J Immunol; 2009.
Lisa M. Hodge, Jerry W. Simecka Role of upper and lower respiratory tract immunity in resistance to mycoplasma respiratory disease. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2002;186 (2)290–294.
Robert Herich. Is the role of IgA in local immunity completely known?, Food and Agricultural Immunology. 2017;28(2):223-237.
DOI: 10.1080/09540105.2016.1258547
Belyakov IM, Hel Z, Kelsall B, Kuznetsov VA, Ahlers JD, Nacsa J, Watkins DI, Allen TM, Sette A, Altman J, et al. Mucosal AIDS vaccine reduces disease and viral load in gut reservoir and blood after mucosal infection of macaques. Nat. Med. 2001;7:1320–1326.
Ichinohe T, Lee HK, Ogura Y, Flavell R, Iwasaki A. Inflammasome recognition of influenza virus is essential for adaptive immune responses. J. Exp. Med. 2009;206:79–87.
Kantele A, Ha¨kkinen M, Moldoveanu Z, Lu A, Savilahti E, Alvarez RD, Michalek S, Mestecky J. Differences in immune responses induced by oral and rectal immunizations with Salmonella typhi Ty21a: Evidence for compartmental-ization within the common mucosal immune system in humans. Infect. Immun. 1998;66:5630–5635.
Bienenstock J, Befus AD, McDermott M, Mirski S, Rosenthal K, Tagliabue A. The mucosal immunological network: Compartmentalization of lymphocytes, natural killer cells and mast cells. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1983;409:164–170.
Wang J, Thorson L, Stokes RW, Santosuosso M, Huygen K, Zganiacz A, Hitt M, Xing Z. Single mucosal, but not parenteral, immunization with recombinant adenoviral-based vaccine provides potent protection from pulmonary tuberculosis. J. Immunol. 2004;173:6357–6365.
Neutra MR, Kozlowski PA. M30. Neutra MR, Kozlowski PA. Mucosal vaccines: the promise and thechallenge. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2006;6:148–158.
Gallichan WS, Rosenthal KL. Long-lived cytotoxic T lymphocytememory in mucosal tissues after mucosal but not systemic immunization. J. Exp. Med. 1996;184:1879 –1890.
Revaz V, Benyacoub J, Kast WM, Schiller JT, De Grandi P, Nardelli-Haefliger D. Mucosal vaccination with a recombinant Salmonella ty-phimurium expressing human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) L1 virus-like particles (VLPs) or HPV16 VLPs purified from insect cells inhibits the growth of HPV16-expressing tumor cells in mice. Virology. 2001;279: 354–360.
Kozlowski PA, Cu-Uvin S, Neutra MR, T. Flanigan P. Comparisonof the oral, rectal and vaginal immunization routes for induction of antibodies inrectal and genital tract secretions of women. Infect. Immun. 1997;65:1387–1394.
Majid Laassri, Kathleen Lottenbach, Robert Belshe, Mark Wolff, Margaret Rennels, Stanley Plotkin, Konstantin Chumakov. Effect of different vaccination schedules on excretion of oral poliovirus vaccine strains. The journal of Infectious Diseases. 2005;192(12):2092–2098.
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